Emotional distress, delinquent behavior, academic failure, and gang membership have been associated with father absence (Esbensen, 2000; Hines, 1997; McLanahan, 1999; Pollack, 1998; Popenoe, 1996a; Sakheim & Osborn, 1986). The research does not prove a cause and effect association between the conditions of growing up in a father-absent home and these emotional and social concerns; however, it does support the hypothesis that father absence can contribute to instability on the part of a child/adolescent, and these difficulties may continue well into adulthood (Pollack).

The greater amount of time that parents are separated or divorced, the greater the possibility that the father is seen less than once a year (Amato & Booth, 1996). Father absence does not appear to be going away; the number of children residing exclusively in single-mother homes continues to rise (Popenoe, 1996a). According to the Office of Juvenile Justice and Delinquency Prevention, the percentage of boys and girls who reside with both parents dropped from 85% to 68% during the period from 1970 to 1997 (Snyder & Sickmund, 1999). This appears especially true for the African American population. Pollack (1998) stated, “Between 1970 and 1994, 60% of African American children lived in single-parent homes” (p. 124).

The former Secretary of Health and Human Services, Louis Sullivan, described the greatest challenge of the era as father absence (Report Calls, 1992). Canfield (1992) described father absence as a catastrophe and pointed out that single-parent homes are not confined to one culture or class of people, but crosses all boundaries of culture and socioeconomic status. Garbarino (1999) described father absence as a breakdown in family rather than a breakdown of the family.

Considering that 2.3 million children were arrested in 2001, there is a high possibility that most of the children had an absent father (Harms, 2003). The apparent question to this dilemma is what has caused this incredible father absence. Lamb (2001) stated that marriages ending in divorce have doubled during the period of 1965 and 1980, rising to 45%. This has affected about 1 million children each year. Children born outside of the union of marriage has surpassed divorce as the primary antecedent of father absence.

African American males face many challenges that shape their physical, psychological, and social development. Social science literature describes the African American males as a population at risk (Weathers & Coker, 1993; Wright, 1992). Delinquent behavior of adolescent males doubles when his father is absent (Lawrence, 1997). A number of social and economic indicators suggest that African American males are in jeopardy, both developmentally and in their quality of life (Weathers & Coker, 1993; Wright, 1992). African American males face major social obstacles. Although many of these males grow up and succeed in life, the majority face challenges that force them to drop out of school, lose self-esteem, and for some, the end result is incarceration. These issues are the basis for further research to examine the effects of father absence on male delinquent behavior. Canfield (1992) argued that it is not fathers, but the stable emotional connection and consistent care-taking relationships that are important positive child adjustment predictors.

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